Table 1 Characteristics and clinical presentation of children with urethral prolapse

Zhang et al. (2020/China) [7]

n = 8

All females

[1 month–10 years]

NR

Vaginal bleeding = 8

NR

NR

NR

Novoa-Carballal et al. (2018/Spain) [20]

n = 1

All females

8 y.o

(White) = 1

Vaginal bleeding = 1

Itching

NR

Painless red, friable circular mass occupying the central part of the vulva introitus

McCaskill et al. (2018/USA) [4]

n = 1

All females

6 y.o

(White) = 1

Vaginal bleeding = 1

Urinary frequency

Urinary urgency

Dysuria constipation

Abdominal pain

No remarkable history

2 cm in diameter, tender, irregularly shaped, friable, exuberant, and erythematous with dark purple-colored peripheral margins

Wei et al. (2017/China) [3]

n = 89

All females

[0.92–12.7] y.o

NR

Vaginal mass = 54

Vaginal bleeding = 34

Dysuria = 1

NR

Malnutrition = 29

Urinary tract infection = 9

Cough = 17

Vulvitis = 5

Diarrhoea = 7

Constipation = 3

A 0.5–3 cm lump protruding from the urethra with clearly visible central urethral opening

Liu et al. (2017/China) [6]

n = 7

All females

[2–8] y.o

NR

Vaginal bleeding + mass = 7

Hematuria = 1

Urodynia = 1

Respiratory infection = 4

History of trauma = 1

A mass protruding out of the vaginal opening

Lora et al. (2017/Italy) [14]

n = 1

All females

8 y.o

Caucasian (white) = 1

Vaginal bleeding = 1

NR

Constipation = 1

Red ‘doughnut’-shaped lesion surrounding the urethral meatus

Kondamudi et al. (2014/USA) [19]

n = 1

All females

6 y.o

African American (black) = 1

Vaginal bleeding = 1

NR

No remarkable history

A round doughnut-shaped reddish-colored mass protruding from the urethral opening

Ballouhey et al. (2014/France) [1]

n = 28

All females

[3–9] y.o

(Black) = 17

NR = 11

Vaginal bleeding = 17

Urinary symptoms = 2

Vaginal pain = 6

Not reported = 3

NR

Chronic constipation = 2

Chronic cough = 2

Cerebral palsy = 1

Urinary tract infections = 3

Upper respiratory illness = 3

An inflamed and friable mass that closed the vaginal opening was observed; the urethral orifice was found in its center

Ballouhey et al. (2013/France) [15]

n = 1

All females

5 y.o

NR

Vaginal bleeding = 1

NR

No remarkable history

2 cm urethral protrusion with ulceration and blood clots

Holbrook et al. (2011/UK) [8]

n = 21

All females

[2–15] y.o

(Black) = 21

Urethral mass = 8

Vaginal bleeding = 6

Dysuria = 6

Leucchorea = 1

Constipation = 1

NR

NR

All had 0.5–2 cm urethral lump with clearly visible central opening = 21 Blue coloration = 3

Aprile et al. (2011/Italy) [2]

n = 1

All females

6 y.o

Caucasian (white) = 1

Vaginal bleeding = 1

Sexual abuse = 1

NR

Trauma (fall) = 1

Red mucous membrane prolapsed form the urethra

Fiogbe et al. (2011/Benin) [12]

n = 9

All females

[2.5—10] y.o

NR

Vaginal bleeding = 5

Vaginal mass = 2

Dysuria = 2

NR

No remarkable history

0.75 to 1 cm ring-shaped congested, oedematous, non-tender mass

Vunda et al. (2011/Switzerland) [16]

n = 1

All females

2.5 y.o

(Black) = 1

Vaginal bleeding = 1

Sexual abuse = 1

NR

No remarkable history

0.5-cm circumferential prolapsed mass

Pereira et al. (2011/UK) [17]

n = 1

All females

5 y.o

(Black) = 1

Vaginal bleeding = 1

NR

No remarkable history

Congested, friable, purplish red doughnut-shaped mucosal mass

Ekenze et al. (2009/Nigeria) [10]

n = 3

All females

[3–5] y.o

NR

NR

NR

NR

NR

Hillyer et al. (2009/USA) [5]

n = 34

All females

[5 months–12 years]

(Black) = 34

Vaginal bleeding = 34

Dysuria = 10

Trauma (fall) = 3

Sexual abuse, STDs = 1

Trauma (pelvic) = 1

Preterm delivery = 4

Asthma = 7

Upper respiratory illness = 5

Hernia = 2

Pneumonia = 1

Mitral regurgitation = 1

stomach cramps = 1

Protruding, congested, and edematous bleeding, fleshy mass surrounding the external urethral meatus

Agarwal et al. (2008/UK) [9]

n = 2

All females

(4, 4.5) y.o

Afro-Caribbean (black) = 2

Vaginal bleeding = 2

NR

No remarkable history

Typical ‘‘doughnut’’ appearance of urethral prolapse

Shurtleff et al. (2002/USA) [13]

n = 3

All females

[3, 6, 8] y.o

NR

Vaginal bleeding = 3

Sexual abuse = 1

Moderate pain = 3

Dysuria = 1

No remarkable history

Ring of congested, edematous tissue prolapsing through the urethral meatus

Silva-Anoma et al. (2001/Ivory Cost) [11]

n = 65

All females

[6 weeks–14 years]

African (Black) = 65

Vaginal bleeding = 29

Hematuria = 5

Urethral mass = 1

Sexual abuse = 5

Vaginal mass = 4

Urethral Prolapsus = 7

Genital malformation = 2

Labia minora hypertrophy = 2

Leucchorea = 4

Trauma = 2

Not precise = 4

Asymptomatic = 13

NR

Circular eversion under the clitoris

McKenna et al. (1999/Queensland) [18]

n = 1

All females

7 y.o

Caucasian (white) = 1

Vaginal bleeding = 1

NR

Mild asthma = 1

1.5 cm fleshy, mulberry like lesion with intact hymen = 1